Sunday, October 31, 2010
Sunday, October 10, 2010
Is It Legal To Have A Pet Platypus
JACKET ': downward trend in the rate of profit
The important thing, in their horror in front of the falling rate of profit,
Ia, however, feel that the capitalist mode of production
forms in the development of productive meetings with the limits,
that in and of itself have nothing to do with the production of wealth,
this limit and the limited special witnesses
and the only historical character of this mode of production,
and that it is not the mode of production ever
Ia for the production of wealth, but rather reached a certain stage
conflicts with its further development "
[Marx's Manuscript of the third volume of Capital]
Apparently it is not possible to get rid of Marx. It seemed to say that
made. Just twenty years ago "with the collapse - the most tragic farce that (the tragedies
would follow soon) - regimes in Eastern Europe and the victory of capitalism in
sauce Thatcher-Reagan, even on Marx and his theories seemed
finally dropped the curtain. It seemed that the page of Marxism
had been definitively turned and that the writings of Marx were now destined
historians and a handful of nostalgic timeless. The volumes of
of the works of Marx and Engels in the former East Berlin of the early nineties
crowded the stalls of used books between the indifference of passers-by seemed
be the best proof of this destiny.
Unfortunately, however, to address and eliminate the contradictions of reality not
enough to argue that they do not exist. This is true for individuals as
companies. Even the capitalist society of our day, or "economy
market" if you prefer. And so, in 2007, came the crisis that still lasts.
The worst dal1929 forward. These years and then show us a face of the capital
very different from that smug and triumphant, in the late eighties.
The result is to undermine many of the certainties which had been built on the
world view and philosophy of story spread on a mass level in the last
decades. How can you not have doubts about the market "in a
situation where wealth is destroyed thousands of billions of euro, and
a few months 50 million unemployed (almost I ' entire Italian population!)
adding worldwide 180 million existing? What "efficiency"
is this? How can I deny this gigantic waste of resources
human and material? E most importantly, how can I avoid this?
ln bottom, these are questions and these questions have brought Karl Marx
the headlines. In ways unthinkable just a few months ago
. The beard of the philosopher of Trier returns to appear in the pages of newspapers and periodicals
: from the pages of the Financial Times, the copertna of Foreign-bit
Iícy and even that of the "Friday" of the Republic. And again, the president
French Nicolas Sarkozy, who takes pictures while you browse your capital, or
German Finance Minister Peer Steinbrück that his goodness, grant that "there are
parts of Marx's theory that are not so bad [1] .
is too easy to argue that these are marred by misunderstandings rediscovered
(one for all: see Marx in a theoretical "pre-Keynesian" the importance of
I'intervento-state economy). At one point, however, renewed attention
against Marx hits the right: the current crisis, Marx tells us more
and better than legions of economists of our day. Why allows us to situate
in a long-term trend of capitalist society: the fall of
rate of profit.
1. The law
The law of falling tendency of the rate of profit is one of the aspects
most debated and misunderstood the theory of Marx. I will not go into the merits of
this debate, but I will expose to the general lines of thought
of Marx, which emerge from the manuscript of the third volume of Capital [2] ,
comparing it with what has happened in recent years.
For Marx the value of the goods is given by the work embedded in it. Only
human labor (living labor) can create value and preserve the one included in
machinery (dead labor) and then provide it to the capitalist his profits through
unpaid work ( surplus labor), or extra work than
is necessary to reproduce the labor force (labor required), this surplus labor
produces an added an added value compared to the value of
work force hired since the beginning of the capitalist production process. Just
because of this peculiarity of human labor to create new value Marx defines
's Operating capital used to buy the labor power variable capital
and what used to purchase machinery and Working capital means constant.
Now, the problem is that with the development of the capitalist mode of production
! In place "a relative decrease of variable capital in relation to capital
constant and then in relation to total capital put in motion "
Marx calls this phenomenon also talking of a "progressive higher
organic composition of capital." This is actually another expression
the gradual development of the productive power of social work , which is manifested in the fact that in general, through the increased use of machinery, capital fixed more raw and auxiliary materials are processed into products
same time , ie with less work. "The relative decrease of variable capital in relation to constant capital means that, remain the same degree of
exploitation of labor, the rate of profit , ie the ratio of surplus value
and the anticipated total capital (the sum of variable capital and constant capital) decreases . This is in brief the law of the fall trend rate of profit. The term "fall", which usually translates in Italian
German Fall, can be misleading, as it gives I'idea of \u200b\u200ba "collapse" sharp and sudden
. In fact, the Marxist theory gave rise to some interpretations "crolliste. These interpretations are wrong already at the level of interpretation (as well as having clearly proved wrong in terms of diagnosis of the development of capitalism): it is Marx himself to insist on the simple character of "trend" for more non-linear law (the Wherefore already excludes the suddenness). And after all the Fall term (and related I'aggettivo); has a meaning that is not reducible to the sudden fall and is in addition frequently replaced by a noun whose meaning gradually gives more sense of what Abnahme (decrease).
2. Factors contrast
The decrease in the rate of profit can be partially offset
the concentration of capital. It means that, while decreasing the proportion of
constant than variable capital, a larger number of workers
work for a single capital is "the mass of profit increases at the same time and despite the falling rate of profit." It is hardly necessary
recall in this connection that the process of concentration of capital
giant has made progress in recent years, creating some real giants
A New York have also created a directory especially for them: the "Global Titans "
monopoly rents they can afford. In some areas the concentration
is so advanced that we are in a state of quasi-monopoly
by a single firm: for example, has calculated that over 80% of the world's computer turns on Microsoft operating systems.
But the raise of the mass of profits is not enough to invalidate the effects of the law. It is the same as Marx observed that "if we consider I'enorme development of the productive forces of social work eg. Only in recent years than in all previous periods, especially when you consider I'enorme mass of fixed capital that enters the process total share of production in addition to the machinery itself, instead of the difficulties that have so far discussed by economists, namely as an explanation to the falling rate of profit, takes over the opposite: how can we explain the fact that this fall is larger or faster? ". Marx's answer is this: should
factors come into play against the current, which hinder and contradict I'efficacia
of the general law, giving the character than just a trend, so
where we have defined the fall of the general rate of profit as
a downward trend " .
The main factors of contrast are these:
1) Increasing the degree of labor exploitation , ie growth
capital gains, especially through the extension of working time
(absolute surplus value) and I'intensificazione labor (relative surplus value) . And
what has happened in recent years both in developing countries, which are delocalized
industrial plants, as in the advanced capitalist countries.
From this point of view is absolutely emblematic of the rise time
equal employment wage (ie the raise of absolute surplus value) produced
few years ago in private companies in a country like Germany.
The increase in the rate of surplus value is realized so that even if not eliminate
the general law of falling rate of profit "means that it acts more like
trend, ie as a law whose completion is paralyzed,
brakes, slowed down, weakened by circumstances acting in the opposite direction. "
2) compression of wages at below its value. According to Marx
this is "one of the most important causes that slow down the tendency to fall
the rate of profit." In this regard it is important to note that the value
of the workforce is historically determined. In this respect, there is no doubt
that the reduction of wages took place in recent years, in parallel processes
precariousness of the labor force, places them in many cases well below their
historical average of 2-3 earlier decades. This is even more evident
if one takes into account the attack on the various components of indirect wages
and delayed (increased cost of public services, widespread decline
of social protection, privatization of pension systems, etc.). .
But we speak the digits. In the U.S., income inequality
reached the highest point in the twenties. The same goes for Britain
I'andata after Blair's Labour Party to power in 1997: here, according
government figures published in May 2009, the gap inequality is
highest ever [3] . But the reduction in the share of gross domestic product
goes to wages, and against the growth of the share allocated to profits, a trend that is affecting all countries in mature capitalism, as highlighted in a search
Bank for International Settlements in 2007: in Italy "for example,
from 1983 to 2005 workers have lost 8 percentage points, went further
profits (which are in the period rose 23% to 31 % of the total) [4] The same
European Commission Employment in Europe 2007 has had to admit:
"in most EU countries the share distribution of work
reached a peak in the late '70s and early '80s, then
reduced to levels below those before the first oil shock. " Finally,
according to a survey of International Labour Office in Geneva, wages
world average in 1995-2007 remained below growth of GDP. In
most countries the share of income going to wages has fallen further
in 2001-2007 than during 1995-2000. Throughout the period
it decreased compared to the profits [5] .
3) fall in the prices of the elements of constant capital . In this regard
Marx notes, "the same trend that increases the mass of constant capital
in relation to that variable, reduces through productive force I'accresciuta
labor value of the elements of constant capital, and thus prevents
the value of constant capital - which also constantly grows - grows in
same proportion in which it grows the volume of material of constant capital, ie
I'entità material means of production that are set in motion by
same workforce. "It follows that in fact the change in the proportion between capital
variable and constant capital is in fact much lower than what you might
inferred rising material of the entity (machinery
etc..) composing it.
4) Overpopulation on this aspect in recent years has
expressed in particular in the form of pressure of a huge military industrial
present in reserves of emerging countries, especially in Asia, but also,
eg., in Eastern Europe. This resulted in a massive relocation
of industrial production to the newly industrialized countries. More
in general, the heightened competition from products manufactured in countries with lower cost
of the workforce has exerted a strong influence on wage moderation
industrially advanced countries. This explains the fact, apparently
controintutivo (but certainly in contrast to the rhetoric
the beneficial effects of globalization), which in the past ten years the countries in which
foreign trade has grown as a proportion of GDP were also the countries that have
known, on average, greater decrease in the share of GDP
went to wages [6] . With regard to this factor against the Marx notes
between I'altro as one of the consequences "of the cheap price and mass
of employees available, or made redundant," in turn stemming from overpopulation on workers, there is the fact that "in many branches of
production remains more or less the merely formal subsumption of labor under
capital, and lasts longer as the overall level of development
at first sight would make possible. "This means products that are lagging behind
and more labor intensive than in the abstract would be allowed by the development
technology, due to the fact that the low price of labor power makes
still affordable. In this regard it is interesting to observe such
that the much-vaunted role of services in providing jobs in the United States of
late nineties can be attributed mostly to low-wage jobs and low
labor productivity, made possible by the availability of much labor surplus [7] And a similar argument could be made in relation to
reluctance of many industrialists to invest our own in technological innovation.
5) foreign trade. According to Marx, this factor is a factor
to contrast with the falling rate of profit for various reasons.
First, thanks to foreign trade volume of production increases
allowing an expansion of scale of production and consequently a reduction
the unit costs of production: this "makes it cheaper both the
elements of constant capital, and those that form directly to the capital
variable (means of subsistence). "I n this way it acts in a manner favorable
increase in the rate of profit, on the one hand by increasing the rate of surplus value
(because the value of the force working-set, and then a majority
of the working day can be represented by not working paid) and
another by reducing the value of constant capital (which slows down the raise
organic composition of capital). You doubt the role that this factor
played in recent years, in terms of low inflation and higher margins
compression of wages.
ln Secondly, Ia technological superiority of the goods produced in a given country can
allow superprofits in to compete with goods produced elsewhere
with less advanced technology, "the capital invested in foreign trade
can yield a higher rate of profit "- Marx notes
this regard - because here" you are competing with goods produced by other
countries with less production conditions favorable and so the more advanced countries
sells its goods above their value, although most of the cheap
competing countries. "In this regard it should be noted that, as regards the countries
to mature capitalism (or - as Lenin said - "more than mature"), this,
that for a long time played an important role (
giving rise to many theories on the "unequal exchange" as a permanent feature
domain in the countries of the center of capitalism than the 'periphery' )
has lost its weight in recent years, thanks to the impressive progress
in technology from countries such as India, China and other countries of Southeast Asia.
ln Third, "as On the other hand, regards the capital invested in colonies "
(but we could easily replace this term with" countries emerging "),
" they can yield higher profit rates, because in those countries the rate
profit is generally higher because of the child development and in the second
place .. . there is a greater exploitation of labor. You can not see because the
higher rates of profit, that the funds so invested in certain branches
returnees, should not be here ... fall within the general leveling of
general rate of profit and therefore should not raise a specific
share. " It is easy to see how this issue applies perfectly to many
today's foreign direct investment made in developing countries or "economies
rapid development," as they say now. The same applies for the short term.
The effects of medium-long term foreign trade, however, are not so favorable
the rate of profit. In fact, as noted by Marx (with obvious reference
England of his day), "the same foreign trade develops
capitalist mode of production and therefore the decrease in home capital
variable than constant and produces the other hand, overproduction
relationship abroad, so he again opposed to the long I'effetto.
should be emphasized, however, a peculiarity of the current situation: the 'expansion of
trade has certainly been significant in recent decades primarily in
geographical sense (think of what it meant I'apertura markets ended the first
capital such as those of Eastern Europe); but it must also be in the sense of quality.
In other words, it is towards a expansion of the sphere of trade,
or of what is marketable and will be exploited. Among the countermeasures
the falling rate of profit there is in fact putting the benefit of property
joint, ie value in use until yesterday and tried to free it and try to transform
in exchange values \u200b\u200b(eg water resources), and of what I'ampliamento
that is covered by a patent (in this regard, it now goes by the genome, certain
types of plant, property intellectual). From this point of view, the trend is
that the colonization of every aspect of existence by capital.
6) Increase in productive capital interest . The latter factor,
Marx merely mentioning is the destination for an increasing share of capital
interest in productive capital, ie speculative investment, eg.
in bonds or shares. As we shall see, this is a big factor today
importance.
3. The fall in the rate profit I'antidoto of credit, the crack
We examined factors counter the downward trend of
rate of profit, and sees the presence in the most recent economic developments.
But as things stand with regard to the same fall in the rate of
profit? Although this trend I'agire factors
contrast seen above, is confirmed by the data in our possession or not? The answer is certainly yes
. This is true for a long period of time. In the period
dal1973 to 2003, the rate of growth of GDP per capita was just over
half the rate of growth recorded in the years 1950 -1973. If the calculation
China is excluded, it would be lower by almost two thirds [8] . And within
this same series is always less than the growth over the years.
World growth in the nineties has been lower than average
previous decades. [9]
And specifically regarding the rate of profit? The deeper
Recent research shows a general trend in long-term
declining rate of profit in recent decades and its convergence towards the
down and to similar levels in the main countries of 'industrialized West,
albeit uneven developments among them. Particularly telling data
on Germany, France and Italy, which show a halving of
rate of profit between the early sixties and the early years of this decade. [10]
I'Italia With specific regard to the governor of the Bank of Italy, Mario Draghi
, I'artefice privatization of the Nineties, said quote:
"over the past two decades has been one of our
stagnant productivity, low investment, low wages, low consumption, high taxes." [11] Japan,
that moved from relatively higher levels of profit rate, shows a decrease
even more from 1970 to the early years of the decade
in progress. United States and Great Britain, who moved from lower levels, seem
instead highlight some recovery since the eighties. [12]
But it is a recovery for spiked I'appunto the giant bubble of financial assets
and credit growth that has exploded in the summer of 2007.
As we have already mentioned on these pages [cf. No.125], this superfluous
finance and debt had a triple function:
1) mitigate the consequences of falling wages and lead to substantial release of the dynamics of consumption than of income due to the development of consumer credit and wealth effect produced by a succession of speculative bubbles
(last in order of time, the new economy bubble and the real estate);
2) avert the outbreak of the crisis in time overproduction in the
(typical case of the automotive industry, where sales were artificially inflated
use for years with very stringent credit installment
I'acquisto for passenger cars, which had charged rates close to zero);
3,) allow the crisis in the capital of exploitation in industry
high profitability in financial and speculative [for a detailed explanation
see these three aspects. still no.l25]. Particularly striking in the case of
United States, where in the early eighties, the financial sector boasted l0% of
total profits, while in 2007 this proportion rose to 40%. In addition, between
2002 to 2007, roughly half of U.S. GDP growth was driven by
real estate. And with all this, if we consider the average profits of enterprises
U.S. before taxes after 1940, there is still a constant
decline: from l94l to 1956 the rate of profit was 28%, from
1957 to 1980 was 20%, to drop again to the l4% in the period l98l-2004. [13]
last of these periods the level of industrial capacity utilization is
always been less than the '82% [14]
Then came Ia reckoning. That act is in a real crisis in general,
through which it is occurring on a massive worldwide destruction
capital necessary to restore conditions of higher profitability
capital .
Marx wrote about it:
"The contradictions, seizures and acute crisis manifests the growing inadequacy of the productive development of society for the relations of production
which had so far. The violent destruction of capital, not as a result
circumstances and terns to it, but as a condition of its self-preservation, is
the most effective where it is known that has done his time and that
must give way to a higher level of social production " [15] seems difficult to give
wrong.
[1] Der Spiegel, September 29, 2008
[2] The quotations are my translation from Part of the falling rate of profit of the manuscript of Book III of Capital forthcoming in a volume of Marx's writings on the crisis that will come out at the publisher "Derive Landing"
[3] J. Plender Mind the gap. Why face a crisis of business May legittimacy in Financial Times, April 8, 2008. See the situation Britannica M. Engels, A Faustian pact That Backfired spectacularly in Financial Times, May 26, 2009
[4] L. Ellis - K. Smith, The global upward trend in the profit share , Bank for International Settlements, July 2007. The research was taken up in an excellent article by M. Ricci , The decline in salaries in the Republic , May 3, 2008. See also M. Mucchetti, Back to the topic of redistribution, in Corriere della Sera , August 24, 2008.
[5] Global Wage Report 2008 / 9 , International Labour Office, Geneva, November 2008. See in particular pages xiii, 20, 59. But all the research is of great interest.
[6] Global Wage Report 2008 / 9, cit., P. 22
[7] On this point see N. Colajanni, The American miracle: a model for Europe?, Milano, Sperling & Kupfer, 2000, p. 30 ff.
[8] A. Kliman, The destruction of capital and the current economic crisis , January 15, 2009.
[9] In this respect refer to the data contained in J. Halevy, Stagnation and Crisis: U.S. Asia US-Japan and China , in L. Vasapollo (ed.), labor against capital. Insecurity, exploitation, relocation , Jaca Book, Milano 2005, pp.181 ff.
[10] M. Li, F. Xiao, A. Zhu, Long waves, institutional changes, and historical trends: a study of the long-term movement of the profit rate in the capitalist world economy in Jousnal of World-Systems Research, vol. XIII, No. 1, 2007, pp. 33-54, part. Pp. 38-40
[11] Final Thoughts , Bank of Italy, May 29, 2009
[12] M. Li, F. Xiao, A. Zhu, cit.
[13] A. Kliman, cit.
[14] J. Bellamy Foster, F. Magdoff, Financial Implosion and Stagnation, Back to the real economy in Monthly Review, December 2008.
[15] K. Marx, the fundamental features of Critique of Political Economy, tr. com. of g. Backhaus, K. now Marx, F. Engels, Collected Works , Editori Riuniti, Rome 1986, p. 137
How To Calculate A Dog's Bmi
of historicism ... -Stephen Garroni-Part One:
history from religion to secularism.
from transcendence to immanence policy.
\u0026lt;storicismo> Let's say that you can use at least two meanings: (1) that Enlightenment, whose meaning is always in search for the reason of what happened-even though, according to some critics, this same Enlightenment reason itself was ahistorical, (2) the meaning nineteenth century, which was true for the dichotomy between reason and history and, therefore, it was denied the historic-philosophical thought of the Enlightenment: however, this dimension had However, already in itself a sign of Querelle about the superiority of the ancient or modern, without which, moreover, would not have given any emphasis on the modernity and progress.
The Universal History of Bossuet, [1] written ad usum Delphini , that is still a theological account of the realization of the divine will with the passing of the mundane events, and , not improperly, that History is crossed by devout admonitions and sees the unfolding of events as a unified process of creation of the world, and the original sin of Adam until the time of Charles the Great. Events do not occur by chance, in fact, even some of the time and place and how individual behavior of the actors, however, are in their most basic meaning, clues and examples of moral rules that can be fulfilled, or conversely , violated. [2]
The History of Bossuet, that the chronological point of view is certainly medieval, however, already open to something new.
In fact, in the work, the use of history is not limited to the spiritual realm, but also has a sense of 'realpolitik' [3] , because the coordinates are determined, in which the unfolding of the events of the human race will be joint. The son of Louis XIV enhances the Histoire universelle for all that, typically, could happen to an absolute monarch. The beginning of the preface, of course, according to the theoretical model of adhornatio , is a screening program of political education, for which history must be conceived as a set of facts and not as a crown of examples, so that in this preface we read "If history is to be useful to other people, then you should never read the principles. There is, for them, best way to find out what can cause the passions and interests, time and circumstances, good or bad advice (...) If experience is required to purchase their cunning, which is used to good government, likewise, for their warning, nothing is more useful than weaving experience, that the principles are also, through the examples of past centuries.
Instead of learning how to judge, which they, however, are usually based on the price to pay for their subjects and their own honor, the principles should form their opinion, with the help of history, without risk, based on past events. If they recognize, eg. for what are the false praise, which, when alive, are addressed to them by all, would be ashamed of vain joy, thereby giving them the flattery, since they know well that the 'real honor just to the substance of the matter. [4]
These introductory words show the three objectives, which assigns to its Bossuet Historie : knowledge of the facts, warning morale, training in political shrewdness, the triple purpose of representation has a common denominator, based on religious, ethical principles, so that the new historiography is transformed into a theological treatise. The threefold division of time in history, history of religion and history of a State, maintains the grounds of factuality ( Faktizität ) of the historical significance of religious and political value, the technique of exposure shows a new awareness the diversity of the methodology. But ultimately it is the moral and theological, which has the upper hand.
However, Bossuet has simultaneously introduced a new genus and a new way of research: a universal history, which no longer considers the world only as a spatial unit, but also as a temporal connection (this is comparable, in Leibniz); also considers Bossouet teaching as a complex political history, which it could not be, if not there were similarities between patterns of behavior at different times, then rules or models of historical progress. The problem of historicity in the sense of separation between the event and singularity type of situations and to behave here, still does not appear as if Bossuet could not climb at this level problematic.
Leibniz was, however, to combine the principle of singularity ( Einmaligkeit ) of each existent with the principle of universal, thus providing a model for resolving the rift singularity between the event and historic opportunity [5] .
Historicity is the process of emancipation of maturation of mankind, which is searching for their health in their own abilities, why not consider the forces between the salvific plan of heavenly providence. On the contrary, as we have seen, with its Diacours sur l'histoire universelle, once again, it is proposed to Bossuet theocentric conception of history.
But it was the last attempt to agree on a whole new historical material found with the unchangeable Biblical pattern of the birth of the world and history. The historical-universal Enlightenment always rejected this meeting as a return to a theological conception of history. From Condorcet to Turgot, the historical research always maintained a hostile tone to Bossuet, rejecting any heavenly plan of salvation in world history.
In the space of half a century, image of history, instead of divine providence, made his appearance and the reason for the clash of interests.
The change in attitude is evident in each word, when you compare the Histoire universelle , written for the dolphin, with the 'Etude de l'Histoire à Monseigneur le Prince de Parme , written, although once again for a prince, Abbé Mably.
Again, the story serves as a moral and \u0026lt;scuola politica>. But in contrast to Bossuet, Mably he wants to return to the past, as the documents allow us to do the profane history - and the focus on profane shows the general philosophical orientation of the historian: it is of civilized humanity, which is to read (not receive from God) and that has to build a legal system that guarantees social peace. In Asia, where they were first formulated, the laws are primarily the safety and freedom as a consequence of justice.
I the relationship of law and history (which is the conclusion of the Hegelian Rechtsphilosophie [6] ) is characteristic of the French Enlightenment.
In this new context, what deserves the interest is not happening, but the history of civilization. "The story, intended as an analysis of an enormous body of facts, that the man tries to organize itself in its memory in chronological order, it can only childish and idle curiosity, thereby demonstrating a spirit of petty, Alias, worn out with a sterile building ( Bildung), which is adequate only for the education of a pedant. What does this mean for us to know the mistakes of our fathers, if they do not serve to make us more acute? [7] Mably had begun with a study of public law, which comes under the policy on peace journalism of the eighteenth century - that this issue, as we know, came up to Kant's Zum ewigen Frieden ("For a perpetual peace") .
flosofia The link between law and history, we can illustrate with Mably, is the work - with a clear distancing from the image of history-Bossuet, which stands in the historical town of action: the story is the process through which man undertakes and establish a rational relation to all of his life. E 'L'esprit des lois Montesquieu, the work is enacted in which the self-founded the company and its legitimation through human reason.
The connection between historical and legal investigation is clear in works Montesqieu, who in 1734 published the Considerations sur les Causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur decadence , explaining growth and decay del'antica Rome, retracing the history of its constitution: thus he was equipped with a viewing angle much deeper than the historical processes, and succeeded in how to frame, size of individuals and contingency of events. The well-known
E. Gibbon, whose monumental work, The History and the Fall of the Roman Empire, appeared half a century after Considerations, and is thus in agreement with Montesquieu, when he sees the decline of Rome in the transition from Republican to a universal empire, though Gibbon stresses the moral fall after the growing wealth, while Montesquieu focuses on a civitas of free and equal, therefore attach great importance to the social structure, ie, shows a sensitivity history than they were in the case of Gibbon. In the Foreword to the Esprit des lois , is expressed as the programmatic shift to an independent historical investigation, which is oriented on the standards of morality and Christianity, but that really is history policy.
"We must take this into account that, what I call virtue in the republic, - writes Montesquieu-is the love for the homeland, the love for equality. It is neither a moral virtue, or Christian - it is rather a virtue policy and it is the key theme, along which moves the Republican government, as well as the honor it is in the case of the monarchy. That's why I called virtue policies love for their country and for the very virtue . "
E 'here it is clear that given the prevalence of a Republican Constitution: in queries to Rome, always proves that Montesquieu's sympathy for the republican state form.
The Republicans, for whom the issue of birth does not play any role, from this point of view are the lucky ones. Because the people can it be envious of a dignity, which is achievable, when you really want and you get to choose.
In this, the government of Rome was something wonderful, since the beginning, both for the character of the people in general as well as the power of the Senate, and for the influence of certain officials, any misuse of power had its counter-Laws of Rome had the power split between a large number of officials, who were leaning on each other, it is hindered and watched. [8]
And since each of these officials had only limited power, every citizen was potentially adequate to perform the same task and the people seeing many personalities next to each other to presentarglisi face, did not establish a special relationship with any of them. [9] The equality of citizens, to Montesquieu, is central to a successful social form, while the other focal point is the limitation of government power.
must certainly be stressed that Montesquieu developed his theory of the state, constantly subjecting it to historical verification: he makes the story really use, required by theoretical philosophers after Bossuet. The work of Montesquieu is a corpus of examples, consideration of which can allow, by analogy, to arrive at structures that go beyond the merely historical, if you know the details of a historical situation and is separated from the universal. The accuracy of the knowledge of the facts must precede the knowledge that it yields, if a historical example must have a theoretical sense. This principle (and not enough empirical research, which may give only the state of knowledge at a time given) is a founder of Montesquieu's historical method. He has historical consciousness in the modern sense.
Sometimes it's time, to use the term philosophy of history, to be recognized as the founder of the French Enlightenment thought historical periods, but in fact he has written many historical works and his Essai sur les Moers et l 'esprit des nations is the reverse of the explicit' Histoire Bossuet-universal history, that is, as profane history of human culture.
times already in his many literary works, marks a significant step in terms of historical consciousness, provided, however, within certain limits, since, in its representation of history mingle in large quantity, pathos literary, cultural, political and personal controversy and a biased view, so that Montsquieu with its most notable scientific sobriety seems to be able to more accurately reflect the attitude of future historians.
No doubt Voltaire was the main protagonist of thorough renewal of the general consciousness, [10] referred to as the secularization of the worldview. This task could be accomplished only if, in place of religious significance the course of history had established a search of all secular political and cultural development of mankind. The spread of this changed representation of history - that was developing beginning with the history of the oracles of Fontanelle to bring about the 'Esprit des lois - even Montsquieu, with its most notable scientific sobriety, not only helped, but it also seems to correlate better with the attitude of future historians.
Condorcet in France was the first to lead to a constitutive principle of the effective ( Faktizität ) the course of history, the principle which allows think of events as a series of decisive moments. Thus Condorcet gives the ideology of progress, which is characteristic of the century, a foundation immanent.
Condorcet in France was the first to lead to a constitutive principle of the effective ( Faktizität ) the course of history, the principle which allows you to think about the events as a series of decisive moments. Thus Condorcet called the ideology of progress, which is characteristic of the century, a foundation immanent.
Condorcet research, so to speak, in the history of something similar to the laws of nature: for this reason that presentation is historical, because it implies a progressive change, which allows observations become human societies in different eras. The analysis must account for the changes in their regularity The survey of what the man was and what it is today, offers us the opportunity to see and clarify further progress, that human nature has not still highlighted.
the edge of the French Enlightenment and German, and almost unknown by the contemporaries and the generations immediately following, an isolated thinker in Italy, GB Vico (where very little was also evaluated). sketched the lines of historical of mankind.
anticartesiano Admittedly, Vico is not so much within the context of the Enlightenment, but rather in the tradition of humanism and the Italian Renaissance, which assumes the philosophical interest and the sciences of antiquity. The rediscovery of Vico in the European context it is due to Benedetto Croce and as a result of accepting the historicity of the Cross, his monograph on Vico prompted a push for further research on this topic. The problem of Vico is the metaphysics of knowledge. With acuity, Vico recognized the weakness of the foundation of Cartesian certain knowledge.
If the certainty of knowing is the identity of the cogito with his proceed, with the formalism of preaching by the thought, do the judging of the acts of thought, then human knowledge can only ever be certain of this, it produces, so that subject, content, follow the cogitare are to coincide. This does not apply to external nature, for natural world - that's why Descartes must return to God as an instance of the correspondence between thought and the external world (physical). This applies fully for mathematical assertions, whose starting point is given by the definition of their objects, as objects of thought are created by held the same thought, as shown in the Elements of Euclid. [11] "We can demonstrate, as Vico-wrote what belongs to geometry, because we who produce it." [12] But then, the objects of geometry are nothing but ideal objects, nothing else that the contents of our thought. Therefore can not be placed on the same logical level of objects of the natural world. The mathematization of physics can still be so rich in produce consistent results and mental constructs; but the nature of things existing before their mathematical definition, it can not say anything for sure. The mathematical knowledge of nature is something on the formal establishment of the thought that produces them the objects of nature, as they are in themselves, only God knows, because he made them-which means that his thought is the construction of the real world. The ideal figures, which the human intellect has, therefore, are fictional (as opposed to objects, created by God).
are not fictitious, however, the artifacts, that man himself factory, and so are the relationships that he builds through his work, therefore, anything that, in the broad sense, culture can be said. It consists not only of material goods and / or ideals - then a house, a working tool, a mathematical statement, but also reports, as the proper order, a military campaign ou peace treaty, an Olympic ceremony. For this Vico takes up less of the difference between Aristotelian natural growth and human construct, but rather, is interested in the ability to know this, which is outside of us. The so-called axiom of Vico \u0026lt;verum et factum convertuntur> binds to the a priori consciousness of the original situation of the created world, then it also has a theological horizon: the intellect infinity of God 'contains' the whole real world, and the thought of God is one with the reality of thought.
But what has passed is not done by those who know, rather it is something that is already done. So it is really true only of what the real story, which I did. The history of man-made shows in the areas in which he acted, then at any time, in which there are historical subjects. Therefore, the true knowledge of history comes from philology, as the true vehicle of historical science. However, these Vico the humanistic tradition rinscimentale a completely new address. Philology becomes the basic science of history, since it is the middle, where it is known what man has done in the world and the world. It 's so that the spirit comes to content: it is not already done so, rather it is the very spirit that makes itself its own object.
[1] - Marx fundou uma nova Ciência, História from a Ciência das sociais formações (ou "sociedades") reais, concretas. We do not understand the scope of this done prodigious. Both before and after Marx, men lived, the masses of people went about their history. There were historians to make his chronicle, and philosophers to his philosophy. The story was an uncultivated field occupied by religious ideologies (Bossuet), legal and moral (Rousseau, Fourier, Proudhon, etc.) or philosophical (Hegel). (Marta Hamecker in desafio.doc). Fonti della theory stadiale: a) la proprietà privata della riflessione sull'origine b) la storia della Concezione provvidenzialistica: Bossuet, (Meek, 7367: 19), c) la tra gli antichi ei dispute modernization (Meek, 7367:) In the first chapter of his Montesquieu. The politics and history, L. Althusser notes that "the story of Bossuet [1] not claim to be universal: all its universality is, however, in saying that the Bible has already said everything, the whole story including the way in which ABSENCE is included in an oak acorn. " [1] Althusser's observation must be upheld in the sense that it can be said-albeit schematically and, therefore, easier-that until the Enlightenment ( So, roughly, until the second half of the seventeenth century [1] ), the concepts of history, tradition, inherited belief, the Bible, they tend to lead one another.
[2] - We need to understand the concept of \u0026lt;bestimmen>, in Marx? In the sense that even if the Stimme is the voice of God calling me to make certain choices, to follow a certain line of conduct, however, SSA is not in need : you can always ignore it and even ribellasi it. Should keep in mind these observations in the case of understand the use, which Marx makes bestimmen and derivatives
[3] - (Policy realistic). Foreign policy power, regardless of their ideologies, aims to meet the specific interests of the state through the use of force.
[4] - Cf Bossuet, Discours sur l'histoire universelle , Paris 1966: 39ss.
[5] - Only Herder recognized the importance, in this sense, the lesson Leibniz.
[6] - Philosophy of Law.
[7] - Abe de Mably
[8] - It 's the famous theme of the division of power which, as we shall see, played an important role in the development of Lenin himself.
[9] - may be a page that shows no faults, but does show the merits of bureaucratization, which may broaden the base of power and, therefore potentially open to all, or, conversely, to exclude from it those who are not part of the 'caste'.
[10] - For the problem of the Enlightenment, its mass flow and the role of Voltaire, Holz refers to Gramsci, Prison Notebooks . III : 1854ss, Torino 1975.
[11] - The development of a non-Euclidean geometry would have confirmed the conception of Vico's not natural geometry and would show the full idealism.
[12] - "Geometric demonstramus, quia facimus. (Vico, cit. In Holz: 378).
Saturday, October 9, 2010
Sunday, October 3, 2010
Swollen Toes For No Reason
Brecht, Praise the dialectic
Injustice now walks with sure-footed.
The oppressors are based on ten thousand years.
Violence guarantees: How well will remain.
No voice sounds except the voice of those in charge
and markets high exploitation says: I only just started.
But among the oppressed many say now:
what we want, will never come.
Who's still alive do not say never!
What is sure is not safe.
How well will not.
When those in power have spoken
speak commands.
Who dares say so?
Who should be, if it lasts oppression? We do.
Who should be, if it is broken? Always with us.
Who is knocked down, get up!
Who is lost, fight!
Who knew his condition, how do you stop?
Because the losers of today are the winners of tomorrow
and never becomes: Today!
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